What We Can Say About Biodiversity

What We Can Say About Biodiversity 

By: PU 2A 2007

Haikal Hakim, Zulhusni, Farhan and others

(Maktab Sains PSBS '07)
 

We define biodiversity as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystem. 

The traditional three levels at which biodiversity has been identified: 

• genetic diversity - diversity of genes within a species. There is a genetic variability among the populations and the individuals of the same species. (See also population genetics.)  
• species diversity - diversity among species in an ecosystem. "Biodiversity hotspots" are excellent examples of species diversity.  
  
• ecosystem diversity - diversity at a higher level of organization, the ecosystem. To do with the variety of ecosystems on Earth.

     
 

Why does it play an important role to us,

to the world? 

Forest Biodiversity 

In Brunei Darussalam, the tropical rainforest is occupied with flora and fauna unimaginable to mind. This beloved forest of ours that we intended to retain and conserve: holds the biodiversity itself that is the variation in animal and plant species. Our tropical rainforest can be sub-divided into 6 natural forest types. 

The natural forest types can be further categorized into subtypes (which we are going to explain later in the context), which follow closely to the geological patterns. It is interesting to say that though Brunei is a small country, it has successfully conserved all of the original natural forest types and subtypes, some of which occurring in other parts of Borneo might already been threatened. So much so, these forest entities become very significant and often rare representative of their own kinds in the world.

There are several contemporary key concerns or issues on Brunei forests which need to be addressed so that that the forests biodiversity be perpetuated and benefited. The issues include:

1. Forest Biodiversity Conversation
2. Forest Biodiversity Researh
3. National Forest Inventory (NFI)
4. Research and Development
5. Wise Use
6. Rehabilitation and Enrichment Planting
7. Forest Monitoring and Surveillance : The Need For Tighter Enforcement

     
 

Forest of Brunei Darussalam 

Introduction 

Approximately 80% (1984) of Brunei’s land area is under natural forest. Forest Reserves make up about 41% of the total land area, about 50% of total forested area. Six major forests types are identified and further classified into 32 subtypes. Plant species are highly diverse; two families – Dipterocarpaceae and Myristicaceae. 

The natural forests of Brunei Darussalam are categorized as tropical rainforests with equatorial characteristics, since the country lies 443 km north of the equator. Based on 1984 figures, the total forest cover is at 469,046 hectares, or 80.6% of total land area. Forest Reserves stand at 235,520 hectares, of approximately 41% of total land, just about 50% of total forested area. By far, talking in terms of percentages, Brunei Darussalam has the highest forest cover (80.6%), compare to neighbouring countries example Indonesia (67%), Malaysia (60%), Philippines (37%) and Thailand (29%). 
 

Forest types and subtypes 

At least six major forest types have been described for Brunei Darussalam, namely:

1) Mangrove Forest

2) Peat Swamp Forest

3) Freshwater Swamp Forest

4) Kerangas Forest

5) Mixed Dipterocarp Forest

6) and Montane Forest. 

These forest types are further categorized into forest subtypes, of which at least 32 of them have been identified. Table 1 summarizes on the forest types and subtypes found in Brunei Darussalam. 
 
 Table 1 Primary Forest Types found in Brunei Darussalam   

FORESTS TYPES	FOREST SUBTYPES	Area (hectares)	% total forest area	%total land area
1. Mangrove	Bakau, Nyireh Bunga, Linggadai, Nipah, Nipah-Dungun, Pedada, Nibong	18,481	3.9	3.2
2. Peat Swamp	Transitional Mangrove-Peatswamp, Ramin-Pulaie, Jongkong, Terentang, Alan, Alan Bunga, Padang Alan, Padang Mixed Forest, Padang Keruntum	90,884	19.4	15.6
3. Freshwater Swamp	Empran, Non- Arboel Alluvium, Sub-Arboel Alluvium	12,668	2.7	2.2
4. Kerangas	Belait-Pleisocene, Tulong, kapur Paya, Ru (Sempilau), Mountain Kerangas	3,455	0.7	0.6
5. Mixed Dipterocarp	Lowland Association, hill, Highland Mix	192,575	41.1	33.1
6. Montane	Mixed Lower Montane, Tulong Association, Shorea coriaceae, Oak Rhododentron Mix.	7,196	3.4	2.7

 Distribution of forest types and subtypes in Brunei Darussalam follows closely to the geological patterns. It is interesting to note that despite the small size of the country, Brunei Darussalam has successfully conserved all of the original natural forest and subtypes, some of which occurring in other parts of Borneo might have already been threatened. So much so these forests entities become very important and often rare representatives of their kinds in the world. This include the Alan ( Shorea albida) forest, the Kapur Paya (Dryobalanops rappa ) forest, Ru or Sempilau ( Gymostemma nobile) forest, Tulong (Agathis bornensis) forest and the Keruntum (Combretocarpus rotundatus) forest. 
 
Some of the forest types present in Brunei Darussalam: 
Mangrrove

Merimbun Swamp

Kerangas Brunei

Mixed Dipterocarp

 

Elaboration of the 7 key concerns on forests of Brunei 
 
a) Forest Biodiversity Research 

Research by the Forest Department is minimal due to the fact that the Department is not a research institution per se. Except for the on-going botanical research carried out by the Brunei National Herbarium; research has been a low-key activity in the other areas of forestry within the Forestry Department. 

Prior to 1997, there had been active research on forestry by JICA researchers, working together closely with Brunei counterparts. Since the declaration of Brunei Darussalam as a developed country with effect on 1^st January 1996, she is no longer eligible for direct foreign funding. As a result, forestry research projects within the Forestry Department have been reduced to a minimum.  

On the other hand, some basis research on forestry-related areas has been carried out by the Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD), in particular, within the Kuala Belalong Field Studies Centre. Other research areas carried out by UBD include phytochemical screening and medicinal plants. The Museums Department has been known to carry out forestry-related research projects, chiefly on ethnobotany, some of which carried out in collaboration with outside agencies e.g. Japanese and American scientists. The Museums Department runs such projects in the Tasek Merimbun.  

b) R & D ( Research and Development)  

At the moment, the Forestry Department does not run an R & D program. It is known that the Agricultural Department of the Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources runs several biodiversity-based R&D programs, including such areas as biotechnology, germplasm collections, medicinal plants, horticultural plants, and tissue culture. The other institution that would have an R&D program on forest biodiversity should be UBD. 

c) National Forest Inventory ( NFI ) 

The last NFI was undertaken during the consultant work of Anderson & Marden (1984). Since then, there has been no further NFI. Ideally, NFI should be carried out at 10-year intervals. The NFI will provide updates on changes on forest cover and other related changes. 

The NFI will be of particular importance in filling the gaps of knowledge on forest resources, and in particular, on forest biodiversity. It would also provide vital information required for the formulation of further conservation programs. 

Of particular interest related to the NFI would be the evaluation of the adverse effects of forest fires during the 1997 El Nino phenomenon. It has been reported that approximately 6200 hectares of forest areas were devastated by forest fires in 1997. Of these, some 4000 hectares (equivalent to about 1% of all forests in Brunei Darussalam) of the affected forests were those said to be with good commercial timber stand. Among those affected were representatives of unique forest subtypes such as the Lowland Tulong Forest in Badas. And out of these 4000 hectares or so, about 1800 hectares are within the Forest Reserves. 

d) Wise Use  

The wise-use concept incorporates multiple use of an area whereby benefits are maximized without causing adverse effects on the environment.  

The recent economic crisis has to a certain extent affected Brunei’s economy, and as result, appropriate measures to bring about economic recovery have been taken by the Government. Tourism, including ecotourism, has been identified as one of the most promising sector that is believed to play a major role in the economic recovery plan. 

Recognizing the economic role of ecotourism development, the Forestry Department sees forest biodiversity conservation as complimenting the economic needs; not just for the sake of conservation alone. In this respect, it is important that conservation programs should tailor for the needs for partial environment-friendly exploitation, mainly ecotourism, whereby income and employment are generated in parallel, but at the same without diversely affecting the natural forest environment. 

e) Rehabilitation and Enrichment Planting 

In ensuring forest biodiversity is protected and maintained, the Forestry Department has several programs on forest rehabilitation and enrichment planting. To date, more than 400 hectares of wasteland areas within and outside the forest Reserves have so far been rehabilitated. This is part of the re-greening program carried out by the Department. The sites involved in this rehabilitation program include those in the Berakas, Anduki, Sungai Mau and Badas areas. 

Enrichment planting is carried out in logged over forests and those areas of forests destroyed during the El Nino fires of 1997. To date, over 2000 hectares of forest areas have been replanted under the enrichment planting program. 

f) Forest Monitoring and Surveillance: The Need for Tighter Enforcement 

The relatively vast tracks of natural tropical rainforests would require a substantial manpower and equipment for continuous and effective monitoring. Current manpower (a small number of Forest Rangers) within the Forestry Department is hardly sufficient to monitor the forests of the country. Illegal entry, logging, poaching and other activities have been going on within the Brunei forests, including the Forest Reserves. More often than not, many of the intruders are those from a neighbouring country. More recently, measures have been taken by the Police and the Arm Forces to step up patrol and surveillance of forests and trans-border areas. 
 

g) Forest Biodiversity Conversation 

In terms of ecosystem conservation, it can be safely stated that Brunei Darussalam has so far succeeded in conserving much of the original forest biodiversity. Relevant Acts under the Laws of Brunei Darussalam and other relevant policies are instrumental in ensuring the conservation of a large part of Brunei natural forest ecosystem. Apart form these, Brunei Darussalam has escaped from the common mistake of over exploitation of forested areas as seen in many countries, due to several reasons, chiefly (i) low population, (ii) low rate of logging and (iii) economy based on oil and gas whose activities are mostly confined within the coastal and offshore areas. 

Some relevant Acts, Policies, Conventions:

• Forestry Act 1934 (to be revised)
• National Forestry Policy 1989
• Wildlife Protection Act 1978
• Land Code 1909 (amended 1982)
• Land Acquisition Act 1949
• Convention on Biological Biodiversity
• Ramsar Convention

     

The Brunei Forest Department runs several conservation programs or projects, such as ex situ (e.g. Arboratum, Palmetum, Bambusetum, Orchidarium, Wild Fruit Trees Collection) and in situ (e.g. Tulong [Agathis borneensis] Forest in Badas Sempilau, [Gymnostemma noble] Forest in Berakas) conservation programs as well as managing the Forest Reserves. The Forest Reserves are categorized according to specific functions, namely, National Park (46,210 hectares), Protection Forest (18, 562 hectares), Production Forest (138,026 hectares) and Recreation Forest (4,211 hectares)

To ensure perpetuation of protected forest areas as part of current efforts to promote the preservation of forest biodiversity in the country, the Forestry Department has forwarded proposal for an expansion of the existing Forest Reserves from 41% (currently) to about 55% of total and area (i.e. from 235,520 hectares [currently] to 322,195 hectares, and increment of 86, 675 hectares).

Biodiversity in Brunei Darussalam

     

A Case Study on Biodiversity

(Acknowledging researcher: Dr Zohrah Hj Sulaiman) 

Objective: To identify all the freshwater fish species present in the lake.

Location: Tasek Merimbun, Tutong District, Brunei Darussalam

Method: Fish sampling

*Keys: Tase(i)k – Lake, sungai - river       

     

Some Facts: 

Tasek Merimbun is the largest freshwater lake in Brunei Darussalam. It is connected to Sungai Tutong by Sungai Asan. The water in the lake is black because its tributary, Sungai Melunchor, flows through peat swamp forest and drains into the lake. During the drought season (El Nino in 1998), the other areas of the lake were dry except Sungai Melunchor.

Tasek Merimbun is inhabited by 43 species of freshwater fishes. The largest family is the Cyprinidae and it comprises of 16 species including the new Rasbora kottelati found in the tributary of the lake in 1992. The other 15 families of freshwater fishes in the lake are Anabantidae, Anguilidae, Belontiidae, Engraulidae, Luciocephalidae, Notopteridae, Bagridae, Channidae, Nandindae, Siluridae, Balitoridae, Helostomatidae, Clariidae, Mastacembelidae and Synbranchidae. Tasek Merimbun is declared as ASEAN Heritage Park in 1984. Fishing activities in the lake had been discouraged in the past. The objectives of this Park are: to function as a wildlife sanctuary, a recreational center, floral and faunal conservation site, and in promoting research and education. 

Map of Brunei Darussalam and its neighbouring states 

Map of the Borneo Island

Method of Sampling Fishes: 

The fishes were obtained using the sampling method. The freshwater fishes were sampled using cast net, sieve-net, traps, gill-net, long lines, hooks and lines. Fish samples for research can either be transported alive or dead to the laboratory. Dead fishes are kept in ice and they are normally used for population genetics studies. Alive fishes, on the other hand, are used for breeding and pond stocking studies.  

Species caught: 
43 species of freshwater fishes were found. The table shows the different no. of fish families found and their subsequent no. of species. 

Fish Families	No. of fish species
Anabantidae	1
Anguilidae	1
Belontiidae	4
Bagridae	3
Channidae	3
Clariidae	3
Cobitidae	2
Cyprinidae	15
Engraulidae	1
Luciocephalidae	1
Notopteridae	1
Nandindae	1
Helostomatidae	1
Mastacembelidae	2
Siluridae	2
Synbranchidae	1
Total: 16 families	43 species

     
 

*NOTE: A new Rasbora species, Rasbora kottelatti was discovered. The species is thought to be endemic to Brunei and Northern Sarawak (East Malaysia). Rasbora kottelati is very similar to Rasbora kalochroma except that Rasbora kottelatti has a well-defined blackish stripe in the middle of the caudal fin. Rasbora kalochroma occurs from the Kuching (capital city of Sarawak, Eastern Malaysia) area southwards to the Kapuas and Barito basins, and outside Borneo, in Belitung, Banka, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.

Conservation of fishes in the lake 

The freshwater fishes Tasek Merimbun represents about 50% of the total freshwater fishes in Brunei Darussalam. Regulating fishing activities in the lake must be balance between harvesting and sustaining. Fishing activities in the lake must not be totally banned from the lake, as fishing has long been traditional activity of the people in Tasek Merimbun. Selective banning on fishing activities may be applicable for example, on the least abundant species. Such regulation will help to sustain the gene pool of the species.

Conclusion 

In general, biodiversity of freshwater fishes of Brunei Darussalam is not as rich as its neighbouring Sarawak (East Malaysia), Sabah (East Malaysia), and Kalimantan (part of Indonesia). The two main reasons are as follows:

1. Brunei does not have many inland waters
2. It is very likely that a number of freshwater fishes have not been fully discovered especially in inaccessible area or area which has not yet been exploited.

      

Some of the fish species found in Tasek Merimbun 

Anguillidae 

Bracki4-Anabantidae

Clariidae 

Cobitidae 

Eel-Synbranchidae 

Engraulidae 

Rasbora Kalochroma 
 

Rasbora Kottelati 

Siluridae (Silurus Glanis)

Aquatic life Biodiversity 

The most recent programs emphasized by our government is conserving and managing the biodiversities of our freshwater fishes and marine turtles, which will decline if not properly taken care of. These increases, not only the environmentalists’ awareness, but the public as well.  

The Management and Conservation of Marine Turtles in Brunei Darussalam

(acknowledging author: Hj. Sabli) 

ABSTRACT

     The Department of Fisheries has started a conservation programme to ensure that the turtle population in Brunei Darussalam will not decrease as have been experienced regionally and worldwide.

     Out of the seven turtle species found in the world, only three species land to nest in Brunei Darussalam’s beaches. These are the Green turtle or Penyu Kangkam (Chelonia mydas) , the Hawksbill turtle or Penyu Sisik (Eretmochelys imbicata) and the Olive Ridley or Penyu Lipas (Lepidochelys olivacea).The most common species is the latter.

     The nesting beaches are distributed along the coast stretching from Pelumpong island to Belait Beach. The nesting season in Brunei Darussalam coincides with the northeast monsoon period. It starts in November an ends in June. 

     The Wildlife Protection Act (revised 1984) under the Museums Department prohibits any person from hunting, killing or capturing any protected animals. Turtles are protected animals under wildlife protection.

     To instill awareness among the public on the threat of the dwindling turtle population, the government has set up the National Marine Turtle Conservation and Management Committee. It was launched last April as a national effort to protect the turtles. It is chaired by the Director of Fisheries and the members are made up of several government agencies and the private sector.

     The objective of the committee is to facilitate the conservation and management of marine turtles in Brunei Darussalam.  This is in line with the objectives of the national strategy which are to manage:

(1) Maintenance of biodiversity

(2) To increase the total turtle population.

 

THE ROLES OF THE FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

a)       Eggs hatchings project

     Under this project, turtle eggs which have been   laid on the various beaches are carefully monitored during the incubation stage.

     Since the early 1990’s, the Department of Fisheries has successfully hatched turtle eggs using artificial method. In the year 2000, a total of 852 eggs have been laid. From their record about 50% of the eggs have hatched out.

b)       Hatching release report

     Baby turtles or hatchlings are released to the sea.  Several schools and volunteer groups have been invited to participate in the release.

c)       Tagging project

     After a turtle has come up and completed laying its eggs, staff from the department will tag the turtle which involves putting two tags on either side of its front flippers.

     The tags carry information such as serial numbers and name and address of the Department of Fisheries. The turtle is then weighed and its carapace (shell) measured. This information is useful as it gives identity to the turtle. So far about thirty adults have been tagged.

d)       Awareness programme

     The Department of Fisheries had conducted several seminars and talks to various schools and institutions.

 

THE ROLES OF THE PUBLIC

Anybody can become turtle volunteers. But they have to be physically fit as they have to walk a distance during turtle nesting season to patrol the beach. For those under the age of eighteen, parental consent to become members is required. As volunteers, they will be assisting staff in the department to monitor beach at night for turtles nesting.

 

Realising the plight of the turtles locally, regionally and internationally, the National on Turtle Management and Conservation has adopted a slogan to meet the objectives of the Committee. The slogan is called:

‘SAYANGI PENYU KITANI ’

This slogan encompasses the feelings to ensure the giants of the sea, the turtles, will not disappear from the face of the earth. When translated, it means that everybody should protect, care and love turtles through our actions.  
 

Threats to biodiversity 

 

During the last century, erosion of biodiversity has been increasingly observed. Some studies show that about one of eight known plant species is threatened with extinction. Some estimates put the loss at up to 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory) and subject to discussion. This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because only a small number of species come into being each year. Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates. 
 

1) Destruction of habitats

Most of the species extinctions from 1000 AD to 2000 AD are due to human activities, in particular destruction of plant and animal habitats. Elevated rates of extinction are being driven by human consumption of organic resources, especially related to tropical forest destruction. While most of the species that are becoming extinct are not food species, their biomass is converted into human food when their habitat is transformed into pasture, cropland, and orchards. It is estimated that more than 40% of the Earth's biomass is tied up in only the few species that represent humans, livestock and crops. Because an ecosystem decreases in stability as its species are made extinct, these studies warn that the global ecosystem is destined for collapse if it is further reduced in complexity.  

Factors contributing to loss of biodiversity are: overpopulation, deforestation, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change, driven by human activity. These factors while all stemming from overpopulation, produce a cumulative impact upon biodiversity. 

Some characterize loss of biodiversity not as ecosystem degradation but by conversion to trivial standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation). In some countries lack of property rights or access regulation to biotic resources necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community). 
 

 

2) Exotic species 

Introduced species 

The rich diversity of unique species across many parts of the world exist only because they are separated by barriers, particularly large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts from other species of other land masses, particularly the highly fecund, ultra-competitive, generalist "super-species". These are barriers that could never be crossed by natural processes, except for many millions of years in the future through continental drift. However humans have invented ships and airplanes, and now have the power to bring into contact species that never have met in their evolutionary history, and on a time scale of days, unlike the centuries that historically have accompanied major animal migrations.

The widespread introduction of exotic species by humans is a potent threat to biodiversity. When exotic species are introduced to ecosystems and establish self-sustaining populations, the endemic species in that ecosystem, that have not evolved to cope with the exotic species, may not survive. The exotic organisms may either be predators, parasites, or simply aggressive species that deprive indigenous species of nutrients, water and light. These exotic or invasive species often have features due to their evolutionary background and environment that makes them competitive, and similarly makes endemic species defenceless and/or uncompetitive against these exotic species. 

As a consequence of the above, if humans continue to combine species from different ecoregions, there is the potential that the world's ecosystems will end up dominated by relatively a few, aggressive, cosmopolitan "super-species". 

Decline in amphibian populations 

Declines in amphibian populations have been observed since 1980s. These might critically threaten global biodiversity. 
 

Biodiversity management: conservation, preservation and protection 

Conservation biology 
The conservation of biological diversity has become a global concern. Although not everybody agrees on extent and significance of current extinction, most consider biodiversity essential. There are basically two main types of conservation options, in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation. In-situ is usually seen as the ideal conservation strategy. However, its implementation is sometimes infeasible. For example, destruction of rare or endangered species' habitats sometimes requires ex-situ conservation efforts. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation can provide a backup solution to in-situ conservation projects. Some believe both types of conservation are required to ensure proper preservation. An example of an in-situ conservation effort is the setting-up of protection areas. Examples of ex-situ conservation efforts, by contrast, would be planting germplasts in seed banks, or growing the Wollemi Pine in nurseries. Such efforts allow the preservation of large populations of plants with minimal genetic erosion. 

At national levels a Biodiversity Action Plan is sometimes prepared to state the protocols necessary to protect an individual species. Usually this plan also details extant data on the species and its habitat. In the USA such a plan is called a Recovery Plan. 

The threat to biological diversity was among the hot topics discussed at the UN World Summit for Sustainable Development, in hope of seeing the foundation of a Global Conservation Trust to help maintain plant collections. 
 
 

Benefits of biodiversity 

      General ideas of why we should maintain biodiversity  
 

There are a multitude of benefits of biodiversity in the sense of one diverse group aiding another such as: 

Resistance to Catastrophe 

Monoculture, the lack of biodiversity, was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters in history, including the Irish Potato Famine, the European wine industry collapse in the late 1800s, and the US Southern Corn Leaf Blight epidemic of 1970.  

Food and drink 

Biodiversity provides food for humans. About 80 percent of our food supply comes from just 20 kinds of plants. Although many kinds of animals are utilized as food, again most consumption is focused on a few species. 

There is vast untapped potential for increasing the range of food products suitable for human consumption, provided that the high present extinction rate can be halted. 

Medicines 

A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources; in most cases these medicines can not presently be synthesized in a laboratory setting. Moreover, only a small proportion of the total diversity of plants has been thoroughly investigated for potential sources of new drugs. Many medicines and antibiotics are also derived from microorganisms. 

Industrial materials 

A wide range of industrial materials are derived directly from biological resources. These include building materials, fibers, dyes, resins, gums, adhesives, rubber and oil. There is enormous potential for further research into sustainably utilizing materials from a wider diversity of organisms. 

Other ecological services 

Biodiversity provides many ecosystem services that are often not readily visible. It plays a part in regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere and water supply. Biodiversity is directly involved in recycling nutrients and providing fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have shown that humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs; for example insect pollination cannot be mimicked by man-made construction, and that activity alone represents tens of billions of dollars in ecosystem services per annum to mankind. 

Leisure, cultural and aesthetic value 

Many people derive value from biodiversity through leisure activities such as enjoying a walk in the countryside, birdwatching or natural history programs on television. 

Biodiversity has inspired musicians, painters, sculptors, writers and other artists. Many cultural groups view themselves as an integral part of the natural world and show respect for other living organisms. 
 

Acknowledgement 

1)  Book Title: Biodiversity Of Flora And Fauna In Brunei Darussalam

     Editors: Zohrah Haji Sulaiman & Lim Chien Lee

     Year: 2003

     Published avenue: Universiti Brunei Darussalam

    

2)  www.Wikipedia.com